Kagera Health and Development Survey (KHDS)

The Kagera Health and Development Survey (KHDS) is a study into the long-run wealth dynamics of households and individuals within North West Tanzania. EDI Global interviewed households originally interviewed from 1991 to 1994, with follow-up surveys in 2004 and 2010. This constitutes one of the longest-running African panel data set of this nature and offers an unprecedented set of research opportunities for examining long-run (nearly 20 years) and intergenerational (as the children of the original respondents have now formed their own households) trends in and mechanisms of poverty persistence and economic growth in rural households.

The KHDS 2010 received funding from the Rockwool Foundation and the World Bank, with additional support from the Hewlett Foundation through the Agence Inter-établissements de Recherche pour le Développement (AIRD). The 2004 round was funded by the Knowledge for Change Partnership Trust Fund at the World Bank and Danish Agency for Development Assistance (DANIDA). The initial KHDS conducted from 1991 to 1994 was funded by the World Bank Research Committee.

KHDS is an official Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) survey, all data, questionnaires, manuals and forms are hosted on the World Bank website:

• KHDS 1991-94
• KHDS 2004
• KHDS 2010

The KHDS data have also been supplemented with additional auxiliary data sets, available here.

Over the last decades, over 100 journal articles have been published using the KHDS data, covering topics such as orphanhood, prime-aged adult death, migration, urbanization, inheritance, bride price, marriage, family networks, intergenerational persistence of poverty, the long-run impact of HIV/AIDS, see here.

Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ), Tanzania

The Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ) is a comprehensive household survey database designed to gather socio-economic information in Tanzania. It covers various aspects such as household demographics, employment, education, health and nutrition, as well as the utilisation and satisfaction with social services. From 2003 to 2007, EDI Global conducted interviews with approximately 20,000 households in 35 different districts, aiming to obtain district-level statistical snapshots. In nine districts, repeat surveys were conducted to track changes over time. The study was funded by Royal Netherlands Embassy – District Rural Development Programme in 2003 and 2004, Tanzania-Netherlands Stichting Nederlands Vrijwilligers (SNV) in 2005, and the Prime Minister’s Office – Regional Administration and Local Government in 2006.

This page intends to keep track of on-going and completed work using the KHDS data set.

Research Papers Using the Long-term Panel

1. Maystadt, Jean-Francois and Gilles Duranton. 2018. The Development Push of Refugees: Evidence from Tanzania. Journal of Economic Geography (2018):1-36.  Access here.
2. Kofol, Chiara and Maryam Naghsh Nejad. 2017. Child Labor and the Arrival of Refugees: Evidence from Tanzania. IZA Discussion paper No. 11242.  Access here.
3. Joachim De Weerdt, Kathleen Beegle and Stefan Dercon. 2017. “Orphanhood and Self-esteem: an 18-year longitudinal study from an HIV affected area in Tanzania.” JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 76(3) 225-230. Access here
4. Adhvaryu, Achyuta and Anant Nyshadham. 2017. “Health, Enterprise, and Labor Complementarity in the Household.” Journal of Development Economics 126: 91-111. Access here
5. Christiaensen, Luc, Joachim De Weerdt, and Ravi Kanbur. 2017. “Mchango wa Miji Midogo Katika Kuleta Maendeleo na Kuondoa Umaskini Tanzania.” IGC Policy Brief.
6. Ruiz, Isabel and Carlos Vargas-Silva. 2017. “The Impact of Hosting Refugees on the Intra-household Allocation of Tasks: A Gender Perspective.” UNU-WIDER Working Paper 2017/66. download
7. Christiaensen Luc, Joachim De Weerdt, Bert Ingelaere and Ravi Kanbur. “Why Secondary Towns Can Be Important for Poverty Reduction – A Migrant’s Perspective.” Policy Research Working Paper 8193. World Bank Jobs and Development Blog.
8. De Weerdt, Joachim, Garance Genicot, and Alice Mesnard. 2017. “Asymmetry of Information within Family Networks.” Journal of Human Resources (forthcoming)
9. Christian, Paul and Brian Dillon. 2018. “Growing and Learning When Consumption Is Seasonal: Long-Term Evidence From Tanzania.” Demography Volume 55, Issue 3, pp 1091–1118 Access here
10. Christiaensen, Luc, Joachim De Weerdt, and Ravi Kanbur. “Where to Create Jobs to Reduce Poverty: Cities or Towns.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 8069 and  IGC Working Paper C-40300-TZA-1.
11. Martuscelli, Antonio. 2016. “Analysing the Impact of Price Shocks in Rural Economies: Do Household Responses Matter?” The Journal of Development Studies 53(9):1518-1534. Access here
12. Burrone, Sara, and Gianna Claudia Giannelli. 2016. “Child Labor and Labor Market Outcomes in Tanzania: A Gender Perspective.” download
13. Adhvaryu, Achyuta, Namrata Kala, and AnantNyshadham. 2016. “Booms, Busts, and Household Enterprise: Evidence from Coffee Farmers in Tanzania.” download
14. Kudo, Yuya. 2016. “Why Is Levirate Marriage Eroding in Africa? HIV/AIDS as an Agent of Institutional Change.” Mimeo Development Studies Center, Institute of Developing Economies. download
15. Pietrelli, Rebecca and Pasquale Scaramozzino. 2016. “Internal Migration and Vulnerability to Poverty in Tanzania.” Centre for Financial and Management Studies Discussion Paper 133. download
16. Christiaensen, Luc, Joachim De Weerdt, and Ravi Kanbur. “Urbanisation and Poverty Reduction.” A position paper prepared for The Planning Commission, President’s Office. download or IOB Analysis and Policy Paper version.
17. Pantaleo, Innocent. 2016. Poverty Dynamics in Kagera Region 1991-2010. PhD Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
18. De Weerdt, Joachim and Kalle Hirvonen. “Risk Sharing and Internal Migration.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 65(1):63-86. download
19. Hirvonen, Kalle. 2016. “Temperature Changes, Household Consumption and Internal Migration: Evidence from Rural Tanzania. ”American Journal of Agricultural Economics 98(4): 1230-1249.
20. Corno,Lucia and Alessandra Voena. 2016. “Selling Daughters: Age of Marriage, Income Shocks and the Bride Price Tradition.” IFS Working Paper W16/08
21. Counts, Christopher J. and Jolene Skordis-Worrall. 2016. “Recognizing the importance of chronic disease in driving healthcare expenditure in Tanzania: analysis of panel data from 1991 to 2010.” Health Policy and Planning 31(4): 434-443. Access here
22. Moradi, Alexander and Kalle Hirvonen. 2016. “The African Enigma: The mystery of tall African adults despite low national incomes revisited.” In J. Komlos & I. R. Kelly (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Economics and Human Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Access here
23. Ruiz, Isabel and Carlos Vargas-Silva. 2016. “The Labour Market Consequences of Hosting Refugees.” Journal of Economic Geography 16(3): 667-694. Access here
24. Dimova, Ralitz, Gil Epstein, and Ira Gang. 2015. “Migration, Transfers and Child Labor”. Review of Development Economics 19(3):735-747. Access here
25. Krutikova, Sonya and Helene Bie Lilleør.2015. “Fetal Origins of Personality: Effects of Early Life Circumstances on Adult Personality Traits.” Oxford University CSAE Working Paper 2015-03. Access here
26. Alam, Shamma Adeeb. 2015. “Parental Health Shocks, Child Labor and Educational Outcomes: Evidence from Tanzania.” Journal of Health Economics 44: 161-175.  Access here
27. Maaskant, Cornelis.  2015. Risk Sharing within Geographically Spread Extended Families: Evidence from Rural Tanzania. MSc thesis, University of Oxford.
28. Hirvonen, Kalle and Helene Bie Lilleør. “Going Back Home:  Internal Return Migration in Rural Tanzania.”  World Development 70: 186-202.
29. De Weerdt, Joachim and Andreas Kutka.  2015. “Urbanisation and Youth Employment in Tanzania.”  ICAS-VI Improving Statistics for Food Security, Sustainable Agriculture, and Rural Development. Linking statistics with decision making, Pages 576 – 586
30. Kudo, Yuya. 2015. “Female Migration for Marriage: Implications from the Land Reform in Rural Tanzania.” World Development 65: 41-61 Access here
31. Fujii, Tomoki.2015. “Poverty Decomposition by Regression: An Application to Tanzania.” UNU-WIDER Working Paper 102.
32. Gaddis, Isis and Johannes Hoogeveen. 2015. “Primary Education in Mainland Tanzania: What Do the Data Tell Us?” in Joshi and Gaddis (eds.) Preparing the Next Generation in Tanzania. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
33. Fichera, Eleonora and David Savage. 2015. “Income and Health in Tanzania. An Instrumental Variable Approach.” World Development 66: 500-515.
34. Ruiz, Isabel and Carlos Vargas-Silva. 2015. “The Labor Market Impacts of Forced Migration.” The American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 105(5): 581-586.
35. Maystadt, Jean-François and Gilles Duranton. “The Development Push of Refugees: Evidence from Tanzania.”, University of Lancaster Economics Working Paper 19.
36. Corno, Lucia. 2014. “Learning (or not) in Health Seeking Behavior: Evidence from Rural Tanzania.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 63(1):27-72
37. Maystadt, Jean-François and Philip Verwimp. “Winners and Losers among a Refugee-Hosting Population.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 62(4):769-809.
38. Scott, Lucy, Katharina Hanifnia, Andrew Shepherd, Milu Muyanga, and Elsa Valli. 2014. “How Resilient are Escapes out of Poverty?” London: Chronic Poverty Advisory Network, Overseas Development Institute.
39. Scott, Lucy, Debbie Hillier, and Helen Underhill. 2014. “Investigating Resilience Thresholds in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Chronic Poverty Advisory Network and Oxfam.
40. Hirvonen, Kalle. 2014. “Measuring Catch-up Growth in Malnourished Populations.”Annals of Human Biology 41(1): 67-75.
41. Rogers, Martha. 2014. Environment and Development: Essays on the Link Between Household Welfare and the Environment in Developing Countries. PhD thesis, The University of Minnesota. download
42. Batura, Neha. 2013. The Determinants and Impact of Long‐term Child Undernutrition: Evidence from Rural Tanzania. Ph.D. thesis, SOAS, University of London. download
43. Martuscelli, Antonio. 2013. Supply Response and Market Imperfections: The Implications for Welfare Analysis. DPhil thesis, University of Sussex. download
44. Gachassin, Marie Castaing. 2013. “Should I Stay or Should I Go? The Role of Roads in Migration Decisions.” Journal of African Economies 22(5): 796-826.
45. BaendeBofota, Youyou. 2013. “The Impact of Social Capital on Children Educational Outcomes: The Case of Tanzania.” IRES Discussion Paper 2013003. download
46. Peterman, Amber, Shu Wen Ng, Tia Palermo, and I-Heng Emma Lee. 2013. “Managing the Double Burden: Pregnancy and Labor-Intensive Time Use in Rural China, Mexico, and Tanzania.” Studies in Family Planning 44(4): 411-430.
47. McKay, Andy and EmiliePerge. 2013. “How Strong is the Evidence for the Existence of Poverty Traps? A Multi-country Assessment.” Journal of Development Studies 49(7):877-897.
48. Bengtsson, N. 2013. “Catholics versus Protestants: On the Benefit Incidence of Faith-Based Foreign Aid.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 61(3):479-50.
49. Christiaensen, Luc, Joachim De Weerdt, and Todo, Y. 2013. “Urbanization and Poverty Reduction – The Role of Rural Diversification and Secondary Towns.” Agricultural Economics 44:447-459.
50. Pradhananga, Rosina. 2013. Economic Coping Mechanisms In Response To Household Health Shocks In Kagera, Tanzania: 1991-2004. Master of Public Health Thesis, Yale University.
51. Kudo, Yuya. 2012. “Returns to Migration: The Role of Educational Attainment in Rural Tanzania.” IDE Discussion Paper 322.
52. Devicienti, Francesco and Mariacristina Rossi. 2012. “Liquidity Constraints, Uncertain Parental Income and Human Capital Accumulation.” Applied Economics Letters 20(9):826-829.
53. Peterman, Amber. 2012. “Widowhood and Asset Inheritance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Empirical Evidence from 15 Countries.”Development Policy Review 30 (5): 543-571.
54. Adhvaryu, Achyuta andAnantNyshadham. 2012. “Schooling, Child Labor, and the Returns to Healthcare in Tanzania. ”The Journal of Human Resources 47(2):364-396.
55. Adhvaryu, Achyuta and Kathleen Beegle. 2012. “The Impacts of Adult Deaths on Older Household Members in Tanzania.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 60(20): 245-277.
56. Kirchberger, Martina and FulgenceMishili. 2011. “Agricultural Productivity Growth in Kagera between 1991 and 2004.” IGC Working Paper 11/0897.
57. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt, and Stefan Dercon. “Migration and Economic Mobility in Tanzania: Evidence from a Tracking Survey.”Review of Economics and Statistics 93(3): 1010–1033.
58. Baez, Javier E. 2011. “Civil Wars Beyond their Borders: The Human Capital and Health Consequences of Hosting Refugees.” Journal of Development Economics 96(2):391-408.
59. Houngbonon, Georges Viven, Sebastian Guendel Rojas, and Viet-Anh Tran. 2011. “The Importance of Tracking in Long-term Household Panel Survey: Evidence from the Impact of Orphanhood on Human Development in Rural Tanzania.” Econometric Team Work from Paris School of Economics, Master in Public Policies and Development. download
60. Opuni, Marjorie, Amber Peterman, and David Bishai. 2011. “Inequality in Prime-age Adult Deaths in a High AIDS Mortality Setting: Does the Measure of Economic Status Matter?” Health Economics 20(11): 1298-1311.
61. Peterman, Amber. 2011. “Women’s Property Rights and Gendered Policies: Implications for Women’s Long-term Welfare in Rural Tanzania.” Journal of Development Studies 47(1):1-30.
62. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt and Stefan Dercon. “Patterns of Migration in Tanzania.” in Larrison, Murrugarra and Sasin (eds.) Migration and Poverty: Towards Better Migration Opportunities For the Poor. Washington DC: The World Bank.
63. Bengtsson, Niklas. 2010. “How Responsive is Body Weight to Transitory Income Changes? Evidence from Rural Tanzania.” Journal of Development Economics 92 (1): 53-61.
64. Maystadt, Jean-François. 2010. Conflict and Forced Migration. PhD thesis, Université Catholique de Louvain. download
65. Hagen, Jens, TomanOmar Mahmoud, and Natalia Trofimenko. 2010. “Orphanhood and Critical Periods in Children’s Human Capital Formation: Long-Run Evidence from North-Western Tanzania.” Kiel Working Paper 1649. download
66. De Weerdt, Joachim. 2010. “Moving out of Poverty in Tanzania: Evidence from Kagera.” Journal of Development Studies 46(2): 331-349.
67. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt and Stefan Dercon. “Orphanhood and Human Capital Destruction: Is there Persistence into Adulthood?” Demography 47(1): 163-180.
68. Dimova, Ralitzaand Kunal Sen. 2010. “Is household income diversification a means of survival or a means of accumulation? Panel data evidence from Tanzania.” SSRN
69. Ikegami, Munenobu. 2009. “Agricultural Productivity and Mortality: Evidence from Kagera, Tanzania.” download
70. Peterman, Amber. 2009. Essays in Maternal Health and Human Rights: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. PhD thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
71. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt, and Stefan Dercon. “The Intergenerational Impact of the African Orphans Crisis: A Cohort Study from an HIV/AIDS Affected Area.”International Journal of Epidemiology 38(2):561-568.
72. Troerup, Sara and O. Mertz. 2009. “Linking Climate Trends to Coping Strategies in Northern Tanzania.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6. download
73. Berger, Sarah. 2008. Understanding Disease Progression in the Kagera Region of Tanzania: A framework for efficient health care delivery. MA thesis, Georgetown Public Policy Institute. download
74. Litchfield,Julie and Thomas McGregor. 2008. “Poverty in Kagera, Tanzania: Characteristics, Causes and Constraints.”Poverty Research Unit at Sussex Working Paper 42.
75. Lilleør, Helene Bie. 2008. “Human Capital Diversification Within the Household. Findings from Tanzania.” University of Copenhagen Centre for Applied Microeconometrics Working Paper 2008-04. download
76. Beegle, Kathleen, Rajeev Dehejia, Roberta Gatti. and Sofya Krutikova. 2008. “The Consequences of Child Labor: Evidence from Longitudinal Data Rural Tanzania.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4677.
77. Alderman, Harold, Johannes Hoogeveen, and Mariacristina Rossi. 2008. “Preschool Nutrition and Subsequent Schooling Attainment: Longitudinal Evidence from Tanzania.” Economic Development and Cultural Change  57(2):239-260.
78. Dercon, Stefan. 2008. “Fate and Fear: Risk and its Consequences in Africa.” Journal of African Economies 17(2):97-127.
79. Lassen, D. and Helene Bie Lilleor. “Informal Institutions and Intergenerational Contracts: Evidence from Schooling and Remittances in Rural Tanzania.” mimeo, University of Copenhagen. download
80. Beegle, Kathleen and Sofya Krutikova. 2008. “Adult Mortality and Children’s Transition into Marriage.” Demographic Research 19(42): 1551-1574. download
81. Anselmi, Laura. 2007. Social Learning in Health Behaviour: The Case of Mosquito Bed Nets in Tanzania. PhD thesis, Oxford University. download.
82. Simonsen, Marianne and Lars Skipper. 2007. “Child Health in a Developing Country: Consequences for Short- and Medium Term Outcomes.” mimeo, University of Arhus and Institute for Local Government Studies. download
83. Udry, Christopher and Hyungi Woo. 2007.“Households and the Social Organization of Consumption in Southern Ghana.”African Studies Review 50(2): 139-53.
84. Baez, Javier E. 2007. “Do Local Children Suffer from Foreign Refugees Inflows? Evidence from Host Communities in Northwestern Tanzania.” SSRN.
85. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt, and Stefan Dercon. “Adult Mortality and Economic Growth in the Age of HIV/AIDS.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 56 (2): 299-326.
86. Ksoll, Christopher. 2007. “Family Networks and Orphan Caretaking in Tanzania.” Oxford University Department of Economics Working Paper
87. Udry, Christopher and Hyungi Woo. 2007. “Households and the Social Organization of Consumption in Southern Ghana.” African Studies Review 50(2): 139-53.
88. Roberts, Peter, KC Shyam, and Cordula Rastogi. 2006. “Rural Access Index: A Key Development Indicator.” World Bank Transport Paper 10. download
89. Beegle, Kathleen, Joachim De Weerdt and Stefan Dercon. “Orphanhood and the Long-term Impact on Children.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 88(5): 1266-1277.
90. Beegle, Kathleen, Rajeev Dehejia, and Roberta Gatti. 2006. “Child Labor and Agricultural Shocks.” Journal of Development Economics 81(1): 80-96.
91. Alderman, Harold, Johannes Hoogeveen and M. Rossi. 2006. “Reducing Child Malnutrition in Tanzania: Combined Effects of Income Growth and Program Interventions.” Economics and Human Biology 4: 1-23.
92. Sahn, David E. and Stephen D. Younger. 2006. “Testing the Kuznets Curve for Countries and Households Using the Body Mass Index.” Strategies and Analysis for Growth and Access Working Paper September 2006.
93. Krutikov, Sonya. 2006. “Impact of Child Labour on Educational Attainment in Adulthood: Evidence from Rural Tanzania.” mimeo, Oxford University. download
94. Seebens, Holger. 2006. “The Contribution of Female non-farm Income to Poverty Reduction.” Paper prepared for the Tanzania Gender and Growth Assessment.
95. Suliman, EldawAbdalla. 2005. Orphanhood, Fostering, and Child Well-being in Tanzania. PhD thesis, The Johns Hopkins University.
96. Beegle, Kathleen. 2005. “Labor Effects of Adult Mortality in Tanzanian Households.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 53(3): 655-684.
97. Ainsworth, Martha, Kathleen Beegle, and GodlikeKoda. 2005. “The Impact of Adult Mortality and Parental Deaths on Primary Schooling in Northwestern Tanzania.”Journal of Development Studies 41(3): 412 – 439.
98. Seck, Papa. 2005. “Do Parents Favor their Biological Offspring over Adopted Orphans? Theory and Evidence from Tanzania.” Hunter College Department of Economics Working Paper
99. Burke, Kathleen and Kathleen Beegle. “Why Children Aren’t Attending School: The Case of Northwestern Tanzania.”Journal of African Economies 13(2): 333-355.
100. Lundberg, Mattias, Mead Over, and PhareMujinja. 2003. “Do Savings Predict Death? Precautionary Savings During an Epidemic.” manuscript prepared for UNAIDS, Geneva. download
101. Ainsworth, Martha and Julia Dayton. 2003. “The Impact of the AIDS Epidemic on the Health of the Elderly in Tanzania.”World Development 31(1): 131-148.
102. Lundberg, Mattias, Mead Over, and PhareMujinja. 2003. “Transfers and Household Welfare in Kagera, Tanzania.” Prepared for UNAIDS.
103. Dayton, Julia and Martha Ainsworth. 2002. “The Elderly and AIDS: Coping Strategies and Health Consequences in Rural Tanzania.” Social Science and Medicine 59: 2161-2172.
104. Lundberg, Mattias, Mead Over, and Phare Mujinja. 2000. “Sources of Financial Assistance for Households Suffering an Adult Death in Kagera, Tanzania.” South African Journal of Economics 68:5:947-984.
105. Ainsworth, Martha and Innocent Semali. 2000. “The Impact of Adult Deaths on Child Health in Northwestern Tanzania.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper
106. Ainsworth, Martha and Innnocent Semali. 1998. “Who dies from AIDS? Socioeconomic Correlates of Adult Deaths in Kagera Region, Tanzania” background paper for Ainsworth, Fransen, and Over (eds.) Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a Global Epidemic.
107. Ainsworth, Martha, Deon Filmer and InnocentSemali. 1998. “The Impact of AIDS Mortality on Individual Fertility: Evidence from Tanzania.” in Montgomery and Cohen (eds.) From Death to Birth: Mortality Decline and Reproductive Change. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
108. Ainsworth, Martha and Mead Over. 1997. Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a Global Epidemic. Washington, D.C.: Oxford University Press. download
109. Semali, Innocent and Martha Ainsworth. 1995. “A Profile of Traditional Healers in an Area Hard-hit by the AIDS Epidemic: Kagera Region, Tanzania.” download
110. Ainsworth, Martha, Susmita Ghosh, and Innocent Semali. 1995. “The Impact of Adult Deaths on Household Composition in Kagera Region, Tanzania.”
111. Ainsworth, Martha and Godlike Koda. 1993. “The Impact of Adult Deaths on School Enrollments and Attendance in Northwestern Tanzania.”
112. Ainsworth, Martha, Godlike Koda, George Lwihula, Phare Mujinja, Mead Over and Innocent Semali. 1992. “Measuring the Economic Impact of Fatal Adult Illness in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Annotated Household Questionnaire.”World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study Working Paper download